Strucutres and Functions of Passives

1. Structure of Passives

In English, a passive sentence is formed by altering the typical subject-verb-object order of an active sentence. The structure of a passive sentence is:

• Active Voice: Subject + Verb + Object
• Passive Voice: Object (now the subject) + Auxiliary Verb (to be) + Past Participle + (optional) Agent

Example

• Active: The chef cooks the meal.
• Passive: The meal is cooked (by the chef).

Steps to Form a Passive Sentence

1. Identify the Object in the active sentence.
2. Move the Object to the subject position of the passive sentence.
3. Insert an Auxiliary Verb (“to be”) in a form that matches the tense of the main verb.
4. Change the Main Verb to its past participle form.
5. Optionally Include the Agent with “by.”

2. Canonical Passives

Canonical passives are straightforward transformations of active sentences into passive form without changing their basic meaning.

Example

• Active: The committee approved the proposal.
• Passive: The proposal was approved by the committee.

Detailed Transformation

• Active Sentence: The committee (subject) approved (verb) the proposal (object).
• Passive Sentence: The proposal (subject) was approved (auxiliary verb + past participle) by the committee (agent).

3. Subject-Object Dilemma: Grammatical Relations vs. Thematic/Logical/Semantic Contents

In passives, there is often a shift between grammatical relations (who does what to whom) and thematic roles (the underlying meanings like agent, patient).

Example

• Active: The teacher explains the lesson.
  • Grammatical Relation: The teacher (subject) explains (verb) the lesson (object).
  • Thematic Role: The teacher (agent) performs the action; the lesson (patient) is affected by the action.
• Passive: The lesson is explained by the teacher.
  • Grammatical Relation: The lesson (subject) is explained (verb) by the teacher (agent).
  • Thematic Role: The lesson (patient) is affected by the action; the teacher (agent) performs the action.

Illustration

4. Indirect Objects in Passive

Verbs with both direct and indirect objects can promote the indirect object to the subject in the passive voice.

Example

• Active: The manager gave the employee a bonus.
  • Direct Object: A bonus
  • Indirect Object: The employee
• Passive with Direct Object as Subject: A bonus was given to the employee by the manager.
• Passive with Indirect Object as Subject: The employee was given a bonus by the manager.

Detailed Transformation

• Active Sentence: The manager (subject) gave (verb) the employee (indirect object) a bonus (direct object).
• Passive Sentence (Direct Object): A bonus (subject) was given (auxiliary verb + past participle) to the employee (prepositional phrase) by the manager (agent).
• Passive Sentence (Indirect Object): The employee (subject) was given (auxiliary verb + past participle) a bonus (direct object) by the manager (agent).

5. Restrictions in Promotions

Certain constructions resist passivization due to inherent characteristics or semantic constraints:

5.1 Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs, which do not have a direct object, cannot form passives.

• Active: The baby cried.
• Passive: Not possible (No object to promote to subject)

5.2 Verbs of Perception and Cognition

Some verbs related to perception or cognition are awkward or unnatural when passivized.

• Active: She knows the answer.
• Passive: The answer is known by her. (Uncommon or awkward)

5.3 Fixed Phrases and Idiomatic Expressions

Idiomatic expressions often lose meaning or become awkward in passive form.

• Active: He took advantage of the situation.
• Passive: The situation was taken advantage of by him. (Awkward)

6. Functions of Passives

Passives serve various functions in English, including emphasis, formality, and tact.

6.1 Emphasis on the Action or Result

The passive can emphasize the action itself or its result rather than who performed it.

• Example: The masterpiece was completed in 2021.

6.2 Unknown or Irrelevant Agent

The passive is useful when the agent is unknown, unimportant, or implied.

• Example: The documents were stolen.

6.3 Formality and Objectivity

Passives can create a formal tone and are often used to achieve objectivity.

• Example: The data were analyzed.

6.4 Avoidance of Blame

Passives can obscure the agent’s identity, which can deflect responsibility.

• Example: Mistakes were made.

7. Examples: Transformations

Transforming the same sentence between active and passive forms highlights differences and use cases.

Example 1

• Active: The company launched a new product.
• Passive: A new product was launched by the company.

Example 2

• Active: The gardener is watering the plants.
• Passive: The plants are being watered by the gardener.

Example 3

• Active: The committee will review the applications.
• Passive: The applications will be reviewed by the committee.

Example 4

• Active: The researchers conducted the experiment.
• Passive: The experiment was conducted by the researchers.

Example 5

• Active: She gave him a book.
• Passive (Indirect Object): He was given a book by her.
• Passive (Direct Object): A book was given to him by her.

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